Bilingual Education Essay -- Language

bilingual teaching, as an educational program, was initially promoted by educators in the mid-seventies (Hunger of Memory 26) and since then has been a topic of many debates in America. Some argue that bilingualistist education only serves as a detriment to American culture. Others argue that bilingual education is beneficial to those who come to live in America and want to become a part of the culture, but lack improvement in the English language. Two authors, who have each taken opposite sides of the debate on bilingual education in America, are Richard Rodriguez and Ariel Dorfman. Richard Rodriguez opines that bilingual education creates a feeling of separateness between foreign language speakers and American society therefore, delaying the formation of a public identity. In contrast, Ariel Dorfman argues that bilingualism in America bequeath be a bridge to better understanding other cultures. I assume the position of being neither, against or entirely in favor of bilingual education. I am in favor of bilingual education because it can be an effective segue to learning the English language and I believe it is very important to remain connected with our familys language and culture. However, I also recognize the negative feeling of separateness from the larger public that bilingual education can have on foreign language speaking families, which hinders my ability to fully embrace bilingual education. Ariel Dorfman is an Argentinian author who struggled throughout his livelihood to find a balance between the Spanish and English languages. As a result of Dorfmans bilingual journey (Heading South 25), he argues that bilingual education is beneficial to American society. Dorfman believes that bilingualism will serve as a channel to better un... ... 1998.PrintGarcia, Maria E., Ofelia Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove Torres-Guzman. Imagining MultilingualSchools Language in discipline and Globalization. Clevdon, GBR Multilingual MattersLimited, 2006. Web. 17 Apr. 201 1.Hadi-Tabassum, Samina. Language, Space and Power A Critical Look at Bilingual Education.Clevdon, GBR Multilingual Matters Limited, 2006. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.Rodriguez, Richard. Aria A Memoir of a Bilingual Childhood. Conversations Reading forWriting. Ed.Gack Selzer. 5th ed. New York Longman, 2003. 153-166. Print.---. Hunger of Memory The Education of Richard Rodriguez. New York Bantam Dell, 1983.PrintSalomone, Rosemary C. True American Language, Identity, and the Education of ImmigrantChildren. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press, 2010. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.

Use of Language in Journeys End by RC Sheriff :: Journeys End Essays

The Use of Language in Journeys EndJourneys End was R.C. Sherriffs only major theatrical production andhad had relatively little experience of bidwriting before. However,the language in the play does not battle array any evidence of this. Being setin the trenches in the Great War, and being with a serious, ingrainedmessage, the play needed to be presented to the audience powerfullyand effectively. The language needed to show the characters and theirlanguage as they would have been had they had actually been in thetrenches at the age and make sure that they were as realistic aspossible. Sherriff has aimed to relate the characters speech directlyto their character but also to create a powerful picture in the mindsof the audience. One of his main aims in the play was to present thepublic with a play to show the real attitudes during the war. Eachcharacter has different dialogue to each other to typify theircharacters and to distinguish them apart. The characters also havedifferent musical modes of language that provides various elements to theplay. Although the play is of a deeply profound nature, the play hasvital outlets of comic relief which is displayed through thecharacters in the play.The stage notes throughout the play show the simple, atmospheric stylethe Sherriff uses in describing the aspects of the play. The verystart of the play which describes the set, and the situation for thewhole play, tunes the audience into the tone of the scene.Warm yellow candle flames light the other corner from the necks of devil bottles on the table. Through the doorway can be seen the mistygrey barricade of the trench, and a narrow slit of starlit sky.This is typical of R.C. Sherriffs style. The notes atomic number 18 simple,explanatory but have the aura of the scene in mind. The characterisedaspects of the scene such as the Warm yellow candle flames and themisty grey parapet contrast to emit the homeliness in the trench,but with the sinister, stony atmosphere outsi de. Sherriff also focusesgreatly on the actions and movements of each character. He does thisto portray the character in the scene exactly as he wants them to beperceived by the audience. This is shown in Act One where Raleigharrives in the trench for the first time and his uneasy disposition asa newcomer to the dugout is clearly apparent. Sherriff explainsAn officer comes groping down the steps and stands in thecandle-light. He looks round, a second base bewildered. He is a well built,healthy looking boy of about eighteen, with the new uniform of a 2nd

the trounle with sweatshops :: essays research papers

The controversial issue of sweatshops is one often over looked by The unite States. In the complaisant Issues Encyclopedia, entry 167, Matt Zwolinski tackles the issues of sweatshops. In this article Matt raises a question I give up not been able to get out of my head since I have begun researching this topic, are companies who contract with sweatshops doing anything wrong? this article goes on to argue that the great deal who work in the sweatshops willingly choose to work there, despite the little environment. Many people in third world countries depend on the sweatshops to earn what they can to have any hopes of surviving. If the sweatshops were to shut down many people would lose their jobs, and therefore have no source of income. This may lead people to steal and prostitution as well. this article is suggesting that sweatshops will better the sparing by giving people a better job than what they may have had. Due to this the companies contracting with sweatshops are not acting wrong in any way. This was a deductive article it had a lot of good examples to show how sweatshops are beneficial to third world countries. Radly Balko seemed to have the same figure point as Matt Zwolinski. Many people believe the richer countries should not support the sweatshops Balko believes if people stopped buying products made in sweatshops the companies will have to shut down and relocate, firing all of the present workers. Rasing the fact that again the worker will have no source of income, the workers need the sweatshop to survive. Balko also uses the course that the workers willingly work in the current environments. Some of the arguments against sweatshops raised by Americans is the they take jobs away from the American people. In the job force it is becoming harder to prevail an open position any where. Instead of keeping the factories here the companies are shipped over seas, causing millions of job opportunities for Americans to be lost. Some arguments rai sed by the United Students Against Sweatshops (USAS) are the poor working conditions, low wages, long hours, and children in the factories. The damp, dark, and cold environment can depress the workers even more than they may be, causing rate in suicide to increase. Low wages is another concern USAS have. The workers barley get enough money to survive.

Edgar Allan Poe?s Poetry :: essays research papers

Once something is gone, it is extremely hard to recover. Poe proves this true in his poems, many of which are about the loss of ideal beauty. Poe often writes about this, plane so much as defining poetry as The rhythmical creation of beauty, as stated in his writing, The Poetic Principle. trinity poems that are specifically about the loss of ideal beauty are The Raven, Lenore and Annabel Lee. In The Raven, the speaker is trying to accept the shoemakers last of his beloved, Lenore. He decides that he should break away on, because it is only causing him great torment. He says this out loud, and the raven states N evermore, meaning that he will never immobilize about her. He argues with the bird, but the bird keeps telling him, Nevermore. By the end of the poem, the speaker is still tormenting over Lenore, because the raven is still sitting on top of his chamber door, reminding him, not letting him move on. Lenore was an example of ideal beauty, and as shown in this poem, it was i mpossible to regain it after its death. Lenore is the subject of another(prenominal) poem by Edgar Allan Poe, entitled Lenore. In this case, the speaker is basically reprimanding Guy De Vere for killing his bride, leaving the speaker obsessing over what was, and what is now gone. In this poem, he is told to move on, because she is dead, and he cannot help that. The speaker wishes to mourn her death in silence, and imagine her as an ideal beauty, resting beside the King of Heaven.The final poem I will take is Annabel Lee. This poem talks about an ideal beauty he knew as a child, and she was killed unexpectedly by the angels, according to the speaker, because he was besides happy, and too much in love with her. In this poem, however, he accepts her death, but claims to have beat the angels, because neither the angels in heaven above, nor the demons down under the sea, can ever dissever my soul from the soul of the beautiful Annabel Lee. This poem is different from the other two poem s, because not only is it a different woman, but he psychologically accepts her death, in a way, rather then being forced to torment over it.

The Forests Symbolisim in The Scarlet Letter Essay -- essays research

A Refuge from Prosecution The Forest in The Scarlet earnThe Scarlet Letter is a tale of constant trial and punishment. For Hester Prynne, there is no turn on from the shame and belittlement she has been forced to endure within puritan society. However, like the puritans who had escaped pursuit by migrating from England to the New World, characters in The Scarlet Letter can escape the prosecution of puritan society by visiting the forest. It is a symbolic country that embodies freedom and privacy, and the only sanctuary for those who seek liberty to express their true nature, whether it be through acts of love, or unorthodoxy. The forest as a symbol of escape from puritan society is persistent throughout the novel through its use by the witches and the shadowy Man, Dimmesdale and Hester?s interactions there, and Pearl?s union with nature there. From its soonest significant mention in the novel, the forest is depicted as a place of lawlessness and mystery, as demonstrated by it s most frequent visitors, the witches, and the Black Man that inhabits it. Early in the book, after Hester and Pearl visit Governor Bellingham?s estate, they are accosted by Mistress Hibbins, who is referred to as a witch, and is in honorable company with the Black Man of the forest. Mistress Hibbins invites Hester to some sort of meeting that would take place that night in the forest, which one can only walk out is of some Satanic or heretical nature. ?Wilt thou go with us tonight (120) she asks, but Hester refuses. The Black Man and his book are themselves symbols of heresy and dissent from puritan law. The Black Man never shows himself to anyone in the novel or enters the village, kind of, he lurks in the forest?s cover until those who choose to sidetrack f... ... showing a less hostile nature. She adorns herself with flowers, and is in ?closest sympathy with the antique wood.? (214) Through this description of Pearl, the forest takes on a sympathetic nature, and is portraye d as an environment where one can find peace with one?s surroundings and be in an environment where they feel amicability instead of antagonism. Of all the symbols in The Scarlet Letter, the forest is one of the most important. By providing an escape from the overbearing nature of puritan life, the forest allows characters to be presented in a different backdrop, it can serve as a place of both light and darkness, but above all, liberty. For every character that visits it, the forest is freedom, protection, and peace. Without it, there would be no contrast with the village as well as puritan society, and Hawthorne?s message would not be as convincing.

Upton Sinclair :: essays research papers

& adenylic acid9At the turn of the atomic number 6 America was in the human face of economic downfall. Laissez Faire Industrialism had been in place and citizens were at the disposal of big business. Poor operative conditions and poverty were the norm in a time where Socialism was an contrasted ideology. Big business was making the government rich. But according to Upton Sinclair and his "Conditions at the Slaughterhouse," unsafe and repulsive healthful conditions were at play, putting thousands of carnivorous Americans and factory workers in danger of death, disease and poverty. Although America had expanded to be the most rapidly industrious nation in the world, hardly a(prenominal) agree that it was worth the expense of its populous health and well organism. &9Upton Sinclair was among a swarm of Muckrakers that erupted during American industrialism. He was among many journalists to expose the wrongs of order of magnitude and propose ways to fix it. But few muc krakers took their stories as deeply as Sinclair. His depiction of the terrible sanitary conditions at one specific totality packing plant in Chicago moved(p) the publics stomachs rather that their hearts. Although he certainly wanted to give the public a view from the inside, public din was his among lesser expectation. The details regarding the unsanitary and disgusting conditions in meat packing factories appear to be background details of a much larger picture. Sinclairs principal(prenominal) fight in his "Conditions at the Slaughterhouse" was to generate about the ideology of Socialism and how government needed to step in and take control. &9The grotesque ways in which the meat was being processed in these plants also relates to the ways in which workers were being treated as well. People working in these plants were about as valuable to the owners as the individual pigs themselves. Although they were not necessarily slaves, they were often foreigners and unskil led workers who had no choice but to work for outset wages under poor living conditions. near of these people lived in the plants themselves or in small tenant housings nearby. The beaten workers in the plants free-base it hard to work in such wish and to them their only way to continue living was to drink their problems away. For alcohol seemed to be their only form of enjoyment. &9&9Americans of the 19th century were supposedly granted freedoms to live and work to provide a family and live the American dream with successfulness and happiness.Upton Sinclair essays research papers &9At the turn of the century America was in the face of economic downfall. Laissez Faire Industrialism had been in place and citizens were at the disposal of big business. Poor working conditions and poverty were the norm in a time where Socialism was an irrelevant ideology. Big business was making the government rich. But according to Upton Sinclair and his "Conditions at the Slaughter house," unsafe and repulsive sanitary conditions were at play, putting thousands of carnivorous Americans and factory workers in danger of death, disease and poverty. Although America had expanded to be the most rapidly industrious nation in the world, few agree that it was worth the expense of its populous health and well being. &9Upton Sinclair was among a swarm of Muckrakers that erupted during American industrialism. He was among many journalists to expose the wrongs of society and propose ways to fix it. But few muckrakers took their stories as deeply as Sinclair. His depiction of the terrible sanitary conditions at one specific meat packing plant in Chicago touched the publics stomachs rather that their hearts. Although he certainly wanted to give the public a view from the inside, public uproar was his among lesser expectation. The details regarding the unsanitary and disgusting conditions in meat packing factories appear to be background details of a much larger pictu re. Sinclairs main fight in his "Conditions at the Slaughterhouse" was to bring about the ideology of Socialism and how government needed to step in and take control. &9The grotesque ways in which the meat was being processed in these plants also relates to the ways in which workers were being treated as well. People working in these plants were about as valuable to the owners as the individual pigs themselves. Although they were not necessarily slaves, they were often foreigners and unskilled workers who had no choice but to work for low wages under poor living conditions. Most of these people lived in the plants themselves or in small tenant housings nearby. The beaten workers in the plants found it hard to work in such deprivation and to them their only way to continue living was to drink their problems away. For alcohol seemed to be their only form of enjoyment. &9&9Americans of the 19th century were supposedly granted freedoms to live and work to provide a fami ly and live the American dream with prosperity and happiness.

Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Catalase Activity in a Potato

Effect of Temperature ( C ? ) on Enzyme Catalase Activity in potato Aim To investigate the Effect of temporaryerature (10, 37, 60) Celsius (C ? ) on enzyme catalase activity in potato using 2% of hydrogen bleach (H202) as the substrate measuring the height (cm) of atomic number 8 gas (bubbles) and calculating the bulk of oxygen bubbles produced (cm3) Introduction Enzymes atomic issuance 18 biological catalysts that speed up metabolic reactions without being affected. They lower the activation energy needed to start a reaction. Enzymes are affected by several factors including PH, Substrate concentration Temperature & other factors.Each enzyme has an optimal temperature at which its activity is the highest, below this optimum temp, the kinetic energy of molecules decrease , thus the collisions between the wide awake settle of the enzyme and substrate decreases , as a result the enzyme activity will decrease , so decreasing the rate of the reaction If the temp. Exceeds the o ptimum temp. The kinetic energy between molecules join on therefore collisions increase leading to the change in the tertiary structure of the enzyme and in this case active site is lost and the enzymes will be denatured so the reaction will slow brush up &stops.Catalase is an enzyme, found basically in all living cells. It breaks down hydrogen peroxide (waste product) into water and oxygen. 2H? O? 2H2O+O2 As predicted, the enzyme catalase activity would be the highest at 37c ? (Optimum temp. )if increased to 60c ? indeed the enzyme would be denatured and if decreased to 10c ? (very low temp. ) then the reaction would be slow. Variables Dependent Height of oxygen bubbles (cm) using a ruler. Independent Temperature (10c ? , 37c ? , 60c ? ) using three different water baths all(prenominal) adjusted to a specific temp . Controlled 1.Number of potato cubes 3 cubes of potatoes were used in each trial at each different temp. If changed, whether decrease or increase, then the number of enzymes (active site) available would change, therefore affecting the rate of the reaction. 2. surface of potato cubes with dimensions 1cmx1cmx1. 5cm . This is controlled by cutting all potato cubes with same dimensions using a ruler & a cutter. If changed, then this would affect the rate of enzyme activity, therefore affecting the results. 3. pot of hydrogen peroxide 15cm3 of hydrogen peroxide was measured using graduated cylinder for each trial at different temp.If changed then the rate of enzyme activity would change, therefore results wint be accurate. 4. Concentration of hydrogen peroxide 2% of hydrogen peroxide was used through all trials this is prepared by adding 20cm3 of H2o2 to 1000cm3 of water. If changed it would affect the rate of enzyme activity since substrate concentration is one of the factors that affect enzyme activity. 5. Volume of liquified purifying 2drops of liquid detergent were added to each examen tube throughout the experiment. If changed, then thi s will affect the height of oxygen bubbles measured cm3 therefore the results wont be accurate. . Time time was recorded for 2 minutes if changed this will affect the results. Materials * 27 cubes of potato each with dimensions 1cmx1cmx1. 5cm. * 15cm3 of 2% hydrogen peroxide for each trial. * 9 test tubes * Water adjusted to (60c ? ,37c ? &10c ? adding ice) * 2drops of liquid detergent in each test tube * Cutter * Ruler * 100cm3 graduated cylinder * Stopwatch * 1000cm3 vividnesstric flask * 50cm3 beaker Procedure 1. Use the cutter, and ruler to cut 27 cubes of potato with dimensions 1cmx1cmx1. 5cm 2. Adjust the water bath temp one at 60c ? , the other one at 37c ? amp last one at 10c ? adding ice. 3. Place 3 potato cubes in each of the three test tubes lay at 10c ?. 4. Leave the test tubes at 10c ? for 10min. 5. Add 2 drops of detergent for each test tube. 6. Measure 15cm3 of 2% hydrogen peroxide for each test tube using graduated cylinder. 7. Add 15cm3 of 2% H2o2 to each test tub e, and immediately start the stop watch recording time for 2 min. 8. afterwardswards 2 min exactly, use the ruler to measure the height of oxygen bubbles (cm). 9. Repeat steps 3 to 8 at a different temp (60c ? ,70c ? ). 10. Record all data in an organized table. Processing and Presenting Data Table (1) Shows the height of oxygen bubbles produced (cm) at different temp. (C ? ) TemperatureC ? 0. 05 Height of oxygen bubbles produced after 2 minutes (cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 10. 00 2. 00 6. 00 2. 00 37. 00 3. 00 4. 50 1. 50 60. 00 3. 00 2. 00 2. 00 Table (2) Shows mean height in (cm) for oxygen bubbles 0. 05 and mountain of oxygen bubbles (cm3)0. 05 at different temp (C ? ) Temperature C ? 0. 05 Mean height (cm) for oxygen bubbles 0. 05 Volume of mean height of oxygen bubbles cm3 0. 05 10. 0 3. 33 16. 34 37. 00 4. 86 23. 84 60. 00 2. 06 10. 11 * Sample calculations 10c ? 1. Mean height of oxygen bubbles in cm. T1+T2+T33= 2+6+23= 3. 33cm 2. Volume of oxygen bubbles cm3 Volume of cylinder ? r2xh 3. 14x (1. 25)23. 33=16. 34cm3 Discussion As shown in table (2) as temperature increased from 10c ? to 37c ? , the mean height in cm of oxygen bubbles increased from 3. 33cm to 4. 86cm. Aa temperature increase from 37c ? to 60c ? the mean height cm of oxygen bubbles decreased from 4. 86cm to 2. 06cm. Reffering to the table (2) and graph , as temp. ncreased from 10c ? to 37c ? the volume of oxygen bubbles (cm3) increased from 16. 34cm3 to 23. 84cm3. As temp increased from 37c ? to 60c ? the volume of oxygen bubbles produced (cm3) decreased from 23. 84cm3 to 10. 11cm3. Each enzyme has an optimum temp. at which the rate of enzyme activity is the highest. Above the optimum temp the kinetic energy of molecules increases therefore the collisions between the active site and the substrate increase and as a result the enzyme would lose its 3D structure and active site and the enzyme would be denatured.This is shown in the graph, as the volume of oxygen bubbles cm3 decrease d from 23. 84cm3 to 10. 11cm3 at 60c ?. Below the optimum temp the kinetic energy of molecules decreases ,therefore the collisions decrease and the enzyme would slow down and the rate of energy decreases as its shown in table (2) the volume of oxygen bubble decrease from 37c ? to 10c ?. According to our results in table (2) and graph, the optimum temp was 37c ? at which rate of enzyme catalase activity was the highest as the highest volume of oxygen bubbles was produced 23. 84cm3.The results obtained matched the hypothesis which stated that 37c ? is the optimum temp for enzyme catalase to break hydrogen peroxide which is a toxic product into water & oxygen. Evaluation & Improvements 1. Size of potato cubes . Potato cubes were cut into cubes of dimensions 1cmx1cmx1. 5cm using a ruler and a blade which was a source of error since all cubes vary slightly in size which means the concentration of catalase enzyme is different. A potato cutter that cut the potato into equal sizes . 2. Heig ht of oxygen bubbles measured by a ruler. This was imprecise method.Volume could be measured instead in height using gas Syringe which will give more accurate results 3. Volume of detergent. 2 drops of detergent were measured using a dropper. A pipette can be used which will give more accurate results. Done BY JIHAN AL-BUKHARI 9A 1 . (Jones, 2009) 2 . Introduction to Enzymes. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity (). N. p. , n. d. Web. 16 Nov. 2012. . 3 . Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity. Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity. N. p. , n. d. Web. 16 Nov. 2012. .

OCR physics B research project Essay

Originally most people believed that the earthly concern was constant as this seemed both(prenominal) more sensible and more comforting. Most Greeks set the planets, sun and other mavens in a series of fixed spheres. Newtons religious beliefs sink him to create a static and eternal framework of the universe where there is an infinite number of stars and each of them be the aforesaid(prenominal) and as distant equally distant, thus causing their attractions to cancel out, despite obvious problems with this fancy.Even once most scientists agreed that the universe is expanding or that it has done so in the past, there was much speculation about why it is expanding and what will happen to it in the future. Hypotheses such as the Big cut and Steady State models of the universe meet persuaded physicists over the past century. Some remain in favour while many others hold back been dismissed on the basis of ruminational evidence. The static universe This was historically the mo st popular view as it seems to fit best with everyday experience of the universe.Until Newton developed his Theory of Gravitation, there seemed to be no particular reason to dismiss this idea. It became ingrained in the minds of many people to the extent that scientists who could see that it was non consistent with currently accepted Theories rejected the idea of a changing universe. Once the idea of a universal attraction in the midst of masses was introduced, people utilise two different ideas to justify a belief in a static universe. The first was that God held everything apart. The second was by introducing a force which opposed gravity on a heavy(p) scale.When Einstein mastermindulated his Theory of General Relativity, he introduced a force called the cosmological constant to fit in with his views of a stationary universe. Speculation regarding a non-eternal and expanding universe Olbers paradox, first described in 1823, suggests that the idea of an infinite universe does not fit with observational evidence. If there is an infinite number of stars, an unendingly large add of illumine should reach us. From this, it can be concluded that the universe is not infinite in size and age.After the Russian mathematician, horse parsley Friedmann, learned of Einsteins Theory of General Relativity, he saw that it implied a changing universe. He saw the cosmological constant as unnecessary. In 1922 he published an article in a publication called Zeitschrift fur Physik. In this he border forward three possible realities based upon his calculations. He change stateed from the starting point of an expanding universe this al humiliateds everything plenty of time to happen, while a universe created in a static state might be judge to contract in a small amount of time. The scenarios differed in their average density of the universe.A high average density relative to speed of refinement would lead gravity to pull all matter back to one point, an idea now commonl y referred to as a Big Crunch. A low density would leave the gravitational attraction too weak to stop the expansion completely. The universe would expand forever and become cold and desolate. In the stay option, the density would be enough to slow the expansion to a rate low enough to give a universe that remains roughly the same size for a long period. Einstein rejected Friedmanns work, initially claiming that the calculations were incorrect.He eventually admitted that the work was mathematically sound, nevertheless he maintained that it did not represent reality. If the assumption that the universe is expanding is removed, collapse is the only possible outcome. Justification for this assumption was required and it soon arrived as a result of meticulous observation and measurement of the stars by Edwin Hubble. But first, another important idea was announced. In 1927, a Belgian cosmologist named Georges Lemaitre reasoned that if the universe is expanding, it must have previously b een smaller.He extrapolated back from this to theorize that the whole universe must have once been small and compact. He called this state the primeval atom and it was the origin of the Big Bang Theory. This is not the only possible logical conclusion of the creation of an expanding universe, plainly it seems the most obvious and simple one, and therefore the first choice using Ockhams Razor, the idea that a simple solution is usually preferable to one that seems needlessly complicated. Lemaitres work, just like Friedmanns, was rejected by the majority of the scientific community, including Einstein, upon whose theory their ideas were based.To persuade people, data was needed. Observations suggesting an expanding universe The easiest way to get a rough idea of the outgo to a star is to compare its brightness to that of a star of known distance. The amount of light observed is inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the star. If two stars are equally bright, this ca n be used to work out the ratio of their distances. Stars vary greatly in brightness, so this method can only give a very rough figure. Its accuracy was improved by focusing on a group of stars that are believed to be of approximately the same level of brightness.This group came in the form of Cepheid variables. The brightness of these fluctuates over time and the speed at which this happens can be measured. Data from Cepheids in the Small Magellanic Cloud (so the distances should all be reasonably comparable) suggested that the amount of light emitted could be linked to the period of oscillation. It therefore seemed reasonable to assume that the ratio of the squares of the distances of two Cepheid variables was inversely proportional to the observed brightness. (http//map. gsfc. nasa. gov/universe/uni_expansion. html) Edwin Hubble used this to work out the distances to a large number of stars.All he now needed to see whether the universe was expanding, contracting or staying rough ly the same in size was the recessional velocities of the stars. If the recessional velocities were mainly positive and proportional to distance from the Earth, it suggested an expanding universe. Mainly negative and getting more negative as you get pass on from us would indicate contraction. Mainly positive or negative with no correlation between speed and distance might suggest expansion in the first case and contraction in the second, but it would not be as simple as the other cases.A roughly even change of positive and negative recessional velocities would indicate a static universe. Recessional velocities cannot be measured directly. The change in distance over a minuscule period is too small relative to the starting distance for the imprecise measurement system previously described to detect. Hubble instead used the Doppler Effect to run across out the speed of retreat. The spectrum of observed light varies depending upon the elements present within a star. Each element gi ves a unique pattern of spectral lines.The amount these lines are red shifted can be used to measure the recessional velocity. Higher speeds result in a greater red shift. Observed frequency = f+fv/c f is transmitted frequency, v is velocity of approach of the object and c is the speed of the waves (the speed of light). (http//library. thinkquest. org/27948/doppler. html) Hubble made measurements of the distance to and the red shift of a vast number of stars and concluded that stars have a recessional velocity directly proportional to their distance from us, as would be expected in an expanding universe.He came up with Hubbles Law, which states v=H0d v is recessional velocity, H0 a constant (Hubbles constant) and d is distance. (Advancing Physics A2, p. 74) image00. png Hubble drew the above graph to show his results. The distance estimates have since been revised upwards. (http//www. phys. unsw. edu. au/astro/wwwlabs/hdfSize/hdfSize_intro. html) Early estimates of Hubbles constant placed it at around 50-100kms-1Mpc-1, while newer estimates have narrowed it down to around 70-80kms-1Mpc-1. Hubbles constant can be used for several things, including estimating the age of the universe.I shall use it to work out the approximate distance away a star would have to be for the observed frequency to be half the emitted frequency. observed frequency One Mpc is roughly 3. 26106 light years, so the star would be about 6. 5 billion light years distant. Fred Zwicky suggested in 1929 that light may lose energy as it travels, which would explain the proportional relationship between red shift and distance.This idea was called the Tired Light hypothesis. This idea has not been very popular as it has trouble explaining some observations while expansion seems a much simpler solution. (http//www. astro. ucla. edu/wright/tiredlit. htm) Theories to explain expansion Although many hypotheses were posited, two took prominence, the Big Bang and Steady State theories. The Big Bang theor y gradually developed from Lemaitres idea of the primeval atom, while Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi created the Steady State theory. The Big Bang is the idea that the whole universe was created by the expansion of a very small and heavy region.The Steady State theory states that the universe is infinite in age, but new matter is constantly being created and lay is expanding. Both theories gained great popularity, but there were some problems with the Steady State idea (http//www. alief. isd. tenet. edu/Hastings/student/2/steadystatestands. html). Some stellar objects, such as quasars, were only found at large distances, suggesting that the universe has changed in appearance over time, contrary to the Steady State principle that the universe should have been similar throughout time, despite its expansion.It also had trouble explaining the relative abundance of different elements, which is something the Big Bang model was able to do after a signifier of calculations, inc luding those published in the Alpher-Bethe-Gamow paper (http//physicsworld. com/cws/article/news/30915). Olbers paradox may again be seen as a problem, though the suggestion was put forward that the light would be red shifted, so the sky would not always be bright as the red shift would move the light to a non-visible region. Despite this, the Steady State theory remained popular.One set of observations, however, changed this. The existence of Cosmic Background Radiation was predicted by the Big Bang model and it was detected in 1964 (http//archive. ncsa. uiuc. edu/Cyberia/Cosmos/Footprints. html). Some proponents of the Steady State theory attempted to explain this as the result of scattered light from distant stars, but they could not explain the black body spectrum produced. Following these results, the Big Bang theory became dominant and it currently remains so.Bibliography Paper sources All the sections up to, but not including, Observations suggesting and expanding universe ar e sourced from Big Bang by Simon Singh. Published by Fourth Estate in 2005. Advancing Physics A2, IoP, 2001 These sources should both be reliable as the second was published by the IoP, while the first is a well known popular science book, so any errors would have probably been highlighted by now.Internet sources http//www. phys. unsw. edu. au/astro/wwwlabs/hdfSize/hdfSize_intro. html http//www. astro. ucla. edu/wright/tiredlit. htm http//www. alief. isd. tenet.edu/Hastings/student/2/steadystatestands. html http//archive. ncsa. uiuc. edu/Cyberia/Cosmos/Footprints. html http//adsabs. harvard. edu/abs/2005ApJ 635L.. 37R These sources are all from university websites, so should be reliable. http//physicsworld. com/cws/article/news/30915.Physics World is a magazine published by the IoP, so should also be reliable. http//library. thinkquest. org/27948/doppler. html According to the website, Thinkquest is written by students under a qualified teacher. Although it is not necessarily as rel iable as the other sources, I feel that this is suffici.

Lex Cost of Capital

Lex Service PLC bell of Capital In 1928 Lex Garages Limited, at the time of public incorporation, had single garage in London. After 60 years, Lex Service PLC became a leading company in automotive distribution and leasing in the United Kingdom. In late 1950, Lex obtained from Volvo Car Corporation the exclusive franchise to import and look at Volvo cars in the United Kingdom that ended in1992 four years before the scheduled termination date. This news dropped the share price of Lexto 30%.In 1970s, Lex started to expand its pedigree into other services like transportation andleasing and for temporarily in hotel management business. By the end of 1983, Lex was structured around two principal groups i-e Lex Automotive and Lex Electronics Worldwide. From 1991 to 1993, Lex ex throw its major electronic business to Arrow Electronics, Inc. With theseries of acquisitions by Lex, finally it entered in the profitable business by acquiring acontrolling interest in the U.K importership, Hyu ndai Car (U. K) in September 1993. Thisacquisition gave Lex management control of a three year rolling contract that Hyundai Car heldwith Hyundai Motor Company of Korea. In this case study, board showdown was scheduled in 1993 to review its make up of peachy proceduresand to determine whether Lex Service PLC should use different hurdle rates for differentdivisions or should use cost of capital for the whole company.Lex Service PLC was concerned about its cost of capital in 1993 because from 1991 to 1993 Lexhad gone through many acquisitions and sales of assets that changed its capital structure in ahuge way. That change of capital structure included the sale of whole electronic division toArrow Electronice, Inc and acquisition of Hyundai Car (U. K). Moreover, they had cash toreinvest so Lex wanted to properly estimate its Cost of equity. Once new cost of capital is computed that will enable the firm to estimate its required rate of return on its investments.Ingeneral companies m ake use of CoC through discounted cash flow or share pricing method. To calculate cost of capital (equity), risk free rate and value of risk premium, calculations are asfollowsIf Lex had no debt in its capital structure then the relationship between its levered equity betaand asset beta can be like ? (asset) = E/V * ? (equity) And it as well as implies that interest and principal payments on the debt are fairly safe that makes the beta of debt to zero. If there is no debt then cost of capital will become the cost of equity.Moreover if Lex adds moderate amount of debt in its capital structure that means equity will become more risky and cost of equity will increment and so will the cost of capital. In order to fully evaluate future investment opportunities, Lex should single discount rate if the project is enough to form the whole firm e-g in acquiring the very similar company. But Lexshould use multiple discount rates in evaluating the projects that replicates one of its division s e-g investment in the automotive division should use the cost of capital of automotive division andsame goes for other divisions